Shanghai Cooperation Organization Research Articles

India and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization: In search of a middle ground

AbstractThe Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) Summit (2023) in virtual format only exposed the growing disconnect between India and the members of this multilateral framework. Given the precarious state of India's relations with its immediate neighbors, China and Pakistan, and the growing camaraderie between Beijing and Moscow, this article examines the reasons behind New Delhi's continued need to engage with this multilateral framework. While India seeks to use the SCO as a “bridge” to improve its ties with Central Asian nations and act as a “check and balance” within the organization, Beijing's ascendancy as the “primary” external actor in the Af‐Pak and Central Asia region has meant that India's ability to gain advantages from its association with the SCO will be severely limited. As the protracted war in Ukraine continues unabated, India's attempts to find a “middle ground” between competing interests and principles will be put to the test.

Current Approaches to Improving Consensus Decision-Making Mechanisms in International Regional Organizations

This study is aimed to study a key element of the activity of any international organization — the problem of consensus decision-making and the corresponding practice of solving it both in integration bodies (Eurasian Economic Union, European Union) and in interstate organizations devoid of a supranational component (Shanghai Cooperation Organization, North Atlantic Treaty Organization treaty, Collective Security Treaty Organization).Aim. Identify current approaches to improving the application of the rule of consensus in interstate (intergovernmental) structures and their bodies.Tasks. Investigate and generalize the practice of consensus decision-making within the international regional organizations, highlight actual ways to increase the efficiency of their decision-making mechanisms.Methods. The study used general scientific methodology. The comparative analysis method is used to compare existing decision-making practices. Analysis, synthesis, generalization, as well as the formal logical method were used to formulate the conclusions of the work.Results. The collective decision-making based on consensus follows from the international legal principle par in parem non habet imperium. It emphasizes the equality of all participants in an international organization and excludes the imposition of obligations non-approved by a sovereign state. From this point of view, consensus is a way to strengthen unity and achieve organizational stability. Simultaneously the practice of using this form in various international organizations gives evidence to its low efficiency in decision-making. Achieving consensus requires intensive efforts to coordinate the positions of the parties, and the emergence of “one-vote veto” situations cannot be ruled out. A possible way to increase the efficiency of decision-making within the framework of integration processes (EU, EAEU) lies through the development of supranational mechanisms.Conclusions. Analysis of the practice of functioning of international regional organizations (SCO, NATO, CSTO) allows to identify two approaches aimed at overcoming the negative features of consensus decision-making. The first involves the development of an international organization with formal obligations of members into a community associated with the establishment of a set of shared values among its participants. The second presumes the creation of mechanisms that allow interested states to use the institutions of such a structure to make collective decisions without a not-participating state. Both approaches do not exclude but complement each other.

China–North Korea Arms Trade from the Perspective of Chinese Scholars

executive summary: This article examines the historical context and evolving dynamics of China–North Korea arms trade and its future scenarios, shedding light on the motivations, methods, and implications of this strategic partnership. main argument An assessment of open-source materials authored by Chinese scholars and experts indicates that, despite international sanctions on weapon sales to North Korea, arms exports play a significant role in enhancing China's geopolitical influence, countering the U.S., and securing a Chinese presence on the Korean Peninsula. Arms exports from China to North Korea are likely to shift from individual products to integrated systems, influenced by the adoption of systems thinking in both the Chinese and the North Korean defense sectors. Additionally, arms trade may evolve toward taking place within China's expanding multilateral frameworks, such as the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Initiative. China may also see a role for North Korea as an intermediary for arms sales to other sanctioned states, mirroring its historical role as an intermediary for North Korea. policy implications • If arms sales from China to North Korea transform into system-based packages, then policymakers should anticipate changes in the nature and coordination of North Korean weaponry, necessitating a reassessment of defense strategies. • If China integrates arms trade into multilateral frameworks, then it is recommended that the U.S. monitor and assess the impact of these organizations on regional security dynamics and consider diplomatic measures to mitigate their securitization. • If North Korea acts as an intermediary for Chinese arms sales to sanctioned states, then robust intelligence efforts and international collaboration should be prioritized to enforce arms control regimes and curb illicit activities. • If Chinese assistance enhances North Korea's military capabilities, then counterstrategies for North Korean systems warfare and advanced technologies will be important for the U.S. so that it can continue to operate effectively in networked environments on the Korean Peninsula.

New Regionalism and Norm Creation: A Case of Shanghai Cooperation Organization

This article delves into the evolution of international norms, focusing on the dynamics within Central Asia as a microcosm of broader global shifts. It begins by elucidating the concept of a "region" in international relations, emphasizing its multifaceted nature, both geographically and culturally, as well as its evolving character in the face of global transformations. The study then delineates the emergence of regionalism, encompassing the historical context of old and new regionalism, with a nuanced understanding of their continuities and distinctions. A pivotal point of analysis is the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), whose genesis and transformation underscore the influence of new regional dynamics. The SCO's role as a tool for soft balancing against external hegemony, particularly that of the United States, is examined, highlighting its emphasis on shared norms that diverge from Western ideologies. The SCO's success in shaping normative preferences within Central Asia, particularly in promoting non-interference, state sovereignty, and stability, is contrasted with the efforts of Western institutions like the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), which prioritize liberal democratic norms. The study concludes by elucidating the implications of these normative contestations in Central Asia for the broader international order.

Shanghai Cooperation Organization: Opportunities for Pakistan

Shanghai Cooperation Organization: Opportunities for Pakistan

Правовое регулирование киберэкстремизма и кибертерроризма: проблемы и перспективы

The article is devoted to a comprehensive analysis of cyberterrorism and cyberextremism as the most dangerous social phenomena that have become widespread due to the development of information technologies, especially in the field of the Internet information and telecommunications network. The author investigates the theoretical concepts of understanding cyberterrorism as a legal definition, examines the historical features of the development of this phenomenon, identifies various approaches in the legal regulation of cyberterrorism in India, Nigeria and the Philippines. The author offers his own definition of cyberextremism, which is based on the compilation of constitutive features of cyberterrorism (as an self-determined phenomenon) and extremism. Particular attention is paid to the polysystem of legal regulation of the fight against cyberextremism and cyberterrorism (universal level of legal regulation, regional level of legal regulation and national legal regulation). The study of overseas experience of legal regulation allowed to shift the focus from the universal level of international legal regulation to the regional one, which will significantly affect the regional security structure. In the course of the study, the author came to the conclusion that the most promising area of regional cooperation in the fight against cyberextremism for the Russian Federation will be the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (further — SCO). This is due to the fact that the SCO is the only international organization that has a conventional regulation of extremism per se. The expansion of cooperation is appropriate given the fact that cyber extremism is a certain form of extremism, as well as the experience of the Republic of India as a SCO member state, which has relevant national legislation aimed at countering cyberterrorism

Иран на пути к региональной интеграции: политические и экономические аспекты взаимоотношений с государствами-членами ШОС

The article examines Iran’s relationship with the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), analyses the process of establishing cooperation with the member states of this organization, primarily Russia and China, in the field of regional security, as well as the political and economic spheres. The history of Iran’s inclusion in the SCO, the dynamics of cooperation, as well as the impact of this interaction on regional and world politics are explored. The focus is on joint projects, diplomatic, trade and economic relations, as well as potential challenges and prospects for cooperation between Iran and the SCO. The work notes that Iran’s desire for full membership in this organization was reinforced by the confrontation with the leading Western powers led by the United States and fit into the framework of Eastern policy with the prospect of an alliance with Russia and China. It is emphasized that due to opposition to Iran’s desire to strengthen its independence and sovereignty, Western powers prevented its inclusion in the regional or international security architecture. Under these conditions, Iran has intensified its efforts in search of its place in the international security system, relying on the idea of national identity and drawing closer to Russia and China. It is noted that the negative consequences of sanctions, threats of military intervention, cyber warfare and attempts to destabilize the Islamic regime were the main methods of Western policy towards Iran. Based on this, accession to the SCO was considered by the Iranian leadership as the most important task to neutralize Western sanctions and become one of the leaders in the regional security system.

Economic cooperation in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization analysis

The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (hereinafter – SCO) was established in 2001 and since then has expanded its membership and scope of activities. The purpose of the study is to analyze the economic aspects of cooperation within the SCO and the existing problems hindering further economic interaction, as well as to identify promising development areas. To achieve this goal the author used general scientific and historical methods that allow us to analyze and evaluate information such as generalization, data analysis and synthesis, method of logical and comparative analysis, comparison and contrast. The current state and prospects of economic cooperation within the SCO have been analyzed. Trade, investments, infrastructure projects, energy, and other areas of interaction have been considered. The SCO economic agenda is aimed at increasing regional trade, improving market access, promoting regional ties, and consolidating the economic potential of member states. However, unresolved territorial disputes between China, India and Pakistan impede the deepening of economic ties. In turn, the recent accession of Iran opens up new opportunities for trade and transportation corridors. Prospects for an SCO free trade zone, joint infrastructure projects, financial cooperation, and high-tech partnerships have been highlighted as strategic goals. In general, further economic integration is in line with the member states’ national interests. Eliminating internal tensions and developing effective communication mechanisms will help strengthen the SCO as an organization and realize its economic potential.

Is international cooperation effective in combating terrorism? Evidence from the Shanghai Cooperation Organization

ABSTRACT Previous studies have theoretically demonstrated that international counter-terrorism cooperation can effectively combat terrorism and maintain regional stability and development. However, due to the limited availability of data, most studies lack empirical analysis. We employ differences-in-differences models to investigate whether the counter-terrorism cooperation actions of Shanghai Cooperation Organization can effectively inhibit the development of terrorism in member countries. We find that after the official launch of the Regional Anti-Terrorism Structure of Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the number of terrorist activities in member countries decreased by 59.8% compared to other Belt and Road countries, and the number of casualties caused by terrorist activities decreased by 42.7%. Mechanism tests show that the breeding ground for terrorism can be eradicated by improving political governance and promoting economic development in member countries. In the context of counter-terrorism, apart from the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, both the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the European Union contribute to the reduction of terrorist attacks among their member states. We believe that by seeking international counter-terrorism cooperation based on common security interests, and actively utilizing a flexible and diverse range of counter-terrorism measures, we can curb the development of terrorism.

Attitudes of Labor Migrants from Central Asia to International Integration Organizations in the Post-Soviet Space

The article presents the results of a sociological empirical study that was conducted from May to August in 2023. Its purpose was to study the attitudes of labor migrants in Russia towards various international integration processes in the post-Soviet space. The objects of the study were workers from Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, working in Moscow and the Moscow region. The choice of these countries is not accidental, as they are the main migration donors to the Russian Federation in Central Asia. The uniqueness of the research results lies in the fact that despite the certain “popularity” of such an empirical object as “labor migrants.” The analyzed subject has not yet been sufficiently developed theoretically and empirically. Particular attention is paid to the political preferences and migration attitudes of labor migrants. The issue of awareness of foreign workers of the activities of international integration and military-political associations, such as the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), European Union (EU), the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) and also the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is examined. The paper also presents the respondents’ assessment of the role of these associations in the development of international processes. Separately, the article examines the relationship between Russia and migrant-sending countries. Based on the results of the study, the authors conclude that respondents have a positive attitude towards integration associations in which Russia plays a key role. Moreover, the socio-political attitudes of foreign workers are characterized by a high degree of loyalty to the foreign policy of the Russian Federation. Migrants overwhelmingly support international cooperation between their countries and Russia and share the foreign policy position of the Russian Federation. In conclusion, labor migrants from Central Asia can be considered as a resource and capital of the influence of Russian “soft power.”

The view on the Situation in Afghanistan in the Chinese Media within China’s National Security

The withdrawal of US troops and the rapid takeover of Kabul by the Taliban (recognized as a terrorist organization and banned in the Russian Federation) in Afghanistan in 2021 shocked the world community. Even though the PRC actively opposes international terrorism, which the Taliban movement (recognized as a terrorist organization and banned in the Russian Federation) is accused of supporting, it has become one of the few countries that have begun to cooperate with the new Afghan regime. In the light of these events, China’s view of the situation in Afghanistan is puzzling, in particular, we are interested in how these events are reported in Chinese press. In this paper, first, we trace the evolution of the PRC’s official position on Afghanistan, and then, using frame analysis, analyze the coverage of the events of 2021 in the PRC by focusing on three authoritative newspapers, Chinese language versions of “People’s Daily”, “Global Times”, and “The Paper”. Our study demonstrates that the Chinese press supports China’s foreign policy in general and its policy in Afghanistan in particular. Stability in Afghanistan and cooperation with the Taliban (recognized as a terrorist organization and banned in the Russian Federation) on issues of Uighur separatism are important for China’s national security. In the Chinese media, the Taliban (recognized as a terrorist organization and banned in the Russian Federation) are not presented as accomplices of terrorism, which China is fighting within the framework of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization but are described as representatives of the Afghan people who aim to restore the security and stability in the country. When discussing the Taliban (recognized as a terrorist organization and banned in the Russian Federation) takeover in the Chinese media, the focus is often not on the crimes of the new regime - repression, abuse of power, restriction of rights, but on shortcoming of the US policy. The latter reflects an important discursive practice in the Chinese media, “othering” the United States.

Turkey’s Political Parties’ Asia Policies: Visions, Contacts, Issues

ABSTRACT Traditionally, Turkey has been an ally of the transatlantic bloc. As a NATO member, with a majority Muslim population and a free market economy, it was even hailed by Western powers as a model country in the 2000s. However, due to its acquisition of the S-400 missile defence system from Russia, its desire to be a member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, and its military presence in Syria and Libya, many analysts have argued that Turkey’s foreign policy has experienced a pivot to Asia recently. This article systematically examines the current positions of various political parties in Turkey in this context using first-hand data. Through semi-structured interviews with 14 political party representatives, and by analysing their party programmes, the vision of different political parties in respect of Asia, their relations with Asian actors, their stance on Asian foreign direct investments and its environmental impacts, the Uyghur issue, and their thoughts on the period that will follow the Ukraine-Russia war are studied.

Development of Cultural and Faith Tourism in SCO and Turkic States: Uzbekistan's Potential and the Exemplary Turkish Case

This article treats Turkish tourism sector's recent changes, focusing on its increasing relationships with the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) countries and Turkic states. The paper examines about Turkiye's efforts to expand its tourism partnerships beyond its traditional European allies and emphasizes its cooperation with SCO member countries such as Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Furthermore, it underlines Turkey's efforts to revive the ancient Silk Road—particularly through the "Middle Corridor" plan—in an effort to increase Turkic states' cultural, economic, and tourist collaboration. Cultural and religious tourism in the Turkic states is highlighted, with a particular emphasis on Turkiye and Uzbekistan. The paper concludes with practical proposals to further develop of cultural and faith tourism, i.e. effective promotional campaigns, cheap flights, and visa-free travel. Generally, the article provides a thorough overview of Turkiye's ever expanding tourism sector as well as its strategic efforts to promote significant cooperation within the SCO region.

PROSPECTS FOR RUSSIAN-IRANIAN ENERGY COOPERATION

Due to the withdrawal of the United States under Republican President D. Trump in 2018 from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) to resolve the Iranian nuclear crisis, non-Western vector of foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) (China, India, Russia, Turkey and other states) has strengthened. It became particularly apparent with the coming to power of a conservative president close to the Supreme Leader of Iran, Ebrahim (Ibrahim) Raisi. Seeking to escape the foreign policy isolation and financial and economic sanctions pressure created by the United States and its allies, Tehran is increasingly participating in the activities of major international entities such as the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (Iran became a full member of the Organization on July 4, 2023), the Eurasian Economic Union (Interim Free Trade Agreement is in force) and BRICS (a member of the organization since January 1, 2024).Thus, Iran declares itself as a successfully developing regional center of power. The article pays special attention to the development of energy (with Russia, Turkmenistan and Azerbaijan), transport and logistics projects (with Azerbaijan, a railway through Iran to Nakhichevan) with neighboring countries. Under President Raisi new gas and oil fields were discovered. In the future they will ensure greater production and exports. With Russia, Iran in the medium term plans to realize swap gas supplies to Iran through the territory of Turkmenistan, as well as to create a gas hub on the coast of Makran to export its own and Russian energy carriers to the countries of South and Southeast Asia. The government of I. Raisi pays special attention to the development of the Macran Free Economic Zone (FEZ) and the FEZ of Kish Island. At the same time, this is a significant territory not only in geo-economic, transportation and logistics, but also in military terms: the seaports of Chahbehar and Jask are geostrategic at the crossroads of energy communications of the Middle East and South (and further Southeast) Asia.

Trade flows of Central Asian states within the framework of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization

Aim. To form a systematic understanding of the structure of trade of Central Asian states within the framework of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO).Objectives. To analyze the commodity structure of trade flows and their geographical distribu- tion; to identify key characteristics of trade flow networks of Central Asian states within the SCO.Methods. Statistical analysis of the geographical, commodity, sectoral structure of exports and imports of goods, as well as the degree of their technological capacity.Results. It can be stated that there are practically no high-tech groups of goods among the significant commodity groups in the trade of Central Asian SCO member states with their part- ners in this organization. Moreover, to a large extent the growth of trade turnover of the countries is conditioned by the intensification of supplies of various raw materials to China (oil, ore, textile and agrarian raw materials). The pattern of “raw materials for raw materials” trade exchange often persists, especially between the Central Asian states proper; moreover, these countries are to a large extent competitors, as the commodity structure of their export flows largely coincides (in particular, in terms of raw materials and agrarian products). Conclusions. The current situation hampers the development of industrial cooperation between the SCO countries. The fact that the “One Belt - One Road” initiative is based on the established trade specializations of the countries may, on the one hand, “revive” trade relations in the region, on the other hand, consolidate the role of Central Asian states as suppliers of raw ma- terials for China.

The Stabilizing Role of Shanghai Cooperation Organization in Afghanistan

Terrorism is one of the main reasons contributing to Afghanistan's insecurity. The fragile peace in Afghanistan has given terrorist groups much freedom to manoeuvre and grow. These situations require the countries in the region to assume greater responsibility to stabilise the country. Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) member states and Afghanistan relations are based on historical friendship and shared interests. The SCO's involvement in Afghanistan is facilitated by the common interests of Pakistan, China, Russia, and other neighbouring countries. The withdrawal of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) from Afghanistan gave the SCO more room to advance in Afghanistan. This article highlights the concrete steps that the SCO has taken to stabilise Afghanistan, as well as the interests of member countries and their peace efforts. In this study, the theories of the Regional Security Complex Theory and Liberal Institutionalism were used. The current economic crisis and political disruption following NATO's withdrawal from Afghanistan highlight the role of the SCO in the situation. Collaboration to boost Afghanistan's economy and growth would be beneficial. Reconstruction, development, governance, and humanitarian assistance are not only the responsibility of the countries in the region but also of the international community and organizations. The economic crisis and the rapid international recognition of the Taliban pose great challenges to the SCO.

OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN IN THE ACTIVITIES OF SHANKHAY COOPERATION ORGANIZATION: INITIATIVES AND PROSPECTS

Analyzes the activities of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the institutional legal basis of its organization, the participation of Uzbekistan in the framework of the organization, its initiatives, and the prospects expected from it. Scientific research of the SCO and prediction of its future are gaining urgent importance in today's rapidly changing system of international relations. Factors such as expansion of the organization's geopolitical map due to the increase in the number of members, as well as a high level of economic potential, open wide opportunities for the developing countries of the SCO. From this point of view, Uzbekistan, which is considered a full member, is promoting many initiatives and gaining opportunities to make the most of such opportunities. depend on the effectiveness of such initiatives and proposals. During the analysis, we discuss Uzbekistan's participation in the organization, its economic goals and geopolitical strategies.

China’s ‘New International Order’: The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation in Afghanistan and Syria

Ever since its establishment, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) has positioned itself as representative of a ‘new international order’ in contrast to the US-led ‘old order’. This article argues that analysing the SCO’s response to international crises as practical implementations of its ‘new international order’ offers crucial insights into China’s vision for international relations. To that end, it examines the organisation’s response to crises in Afghanistan and Syria, outlining what kind of order the SCO propagates and what this means when acted out. The findings are based on qualitative content analysis of PRC and SCO documents and semi-structured expert interviews.

International Cooperation of Member Nations of the CIS on Counteracting Cybercrime

Cybercrime   is  the   threat  to  national  and  international  informational  security.  The  objects  of cyberthreats are economics security, critical information structure, information state sovereignty. All states admit necessity to take effective measures for anti-cybercrime in this time. Such organizations, as Commonwealth of Independent States, Collective Security Treaty Organization, Shanghai Cooperation Organization are to take active measures on counteracting cybercrime.Aim . The aim of this article is to define principal directions on effective counteracting cybercrime, including creation of law base on national, regional and international levels, measures for prevention cybercrime and development of international collaboration.Tasks.  There are following tasks in this article: to define “cybercrime”, categories of cybercrime and measures for prevention cybercrime, to analyze experience of member nations of the CIS and world law mechanism for cybercrime control.Methods.  There is necessity to define terminology in accordance with the international standards for cybercrime control.Results . Member nations of the CIS are giving important attention to creation the law base for national and international security, and also Criminal Law about responsibility for cybercrime.The Model Law “On counteracting cybercrime” was adopted by Interparliamentary Assembly of the CIS on 14 Aprile 2023, which  is the base of development of national legislation in sphere of cybercrime control.On 30  July   2021 Russia was carry in General Assembly of the United Nations the Project of Convention United Nations Countering the use of information and communications technologies for criminal purposes for creation of international law mechanism for anti-cybercrime.In the result of this research author is defined cybercrime and it’s variety in accordance with international standards, and also principal directions of counteracting cybercrime in contemporary period.Conclusion. Implementation by member nations of the CIS of Model Law “On counteracting cybercrime” will allow unify national legislation and assist strengthening and extension international cooperation between these states on combating cybercrime.There is necessity to adopt such complex Federal Law “On counteracting cybercrime” and the Strategy on cybersecurity in Russia.

China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): The Role of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) in Geopolitical Security and Economic Cooperation

China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): The Role of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) in Geopolitical Security and Economic Cooperation